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As demand for higher education (HE) increases around the globe, transnational education (TNE) is growing rapidly as the world continues to recover from the Covid-19 pandemic. In 2021–22, 558,215 students were studying for awards from 162 ������ϲʿ������ providers in 230 countries and territories through TNE – a 9.3% increase from the previous year.��

The Scale of ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE 2021–22 is the seventh in a series of reports produced by U������ϲʿ������i that analyse trends in ������ϲʿ������ higher education transnational education provision (HE TNE) by provider, location, type and level, using the latest data available. The report aims to give insights into the scale and scope of ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE across the globe, shed light on new opportunities and, ultimately, support the development of strategic, sustainable��and secure TNE partnerships.����

In previous editions of this report, we disaggregated European Union and Europe (non-EU) data to track the impact of Brexit on EU partnerships. However, this year we decided to combine these categories and have one single “Europe” category for data collection.����

Over the past decade, TNE has become an important strand of universities’ international activities and one which makes a significant contribution to the ������ϲʿ������ economy. In 2020, the income generated from ������ϲʿ������ TNE activity was estimated to be £2.3 billion, an increase of 112.9% in current prices since 2010.��The importance of TNE is recognised by the ������ϲʿ������ Government, with the International Education Strategy (IES) aiming to increase education exports to £35 billion per year by 2030. In the strategy, the ������ϲʿ������ Government prioritises five countries: India, Vietnam, Nigeria, Indonesia and Saudi Arabia, with a vision to establish long-term sustainable partnerships across these markets. Despite the crucial role TNE plays in the higher education sector and ������ϲʿ������ economy, the challenge to develop strategic, sustainable and secure TNE persists.��

The report uses the Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) Aggregate Offshore Record (AOR) data covering students on ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE programmes between 2017–18 and 2021–22.��

In 2021–22, 162 ������ϲʿ������ higher education providers reported 558,215 students learning through TNE in 230 countries and territories worldwide.��

Due to changes in reporting from a single provider, Oxford Brookes University, ������ϲʿ������ HE��TNE student numbers dropped by over 200,000 from 2018–19 to 2019–20. In Figure 1, HESA AOR data shows an increase of 47,380 students (+9.3%) compared to 2020–21. When Oxford Brookes University is excluded, the data shows that ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE numbers have in fact been increasing over the past five years, and especially so since 2018–19.����

Type of provision

Figure 2 shows that 40.8% of ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE students were studying through collaborative provision (up marginally from 39.1% compared to 2020–21); 27.5% were studying through distance, flexible or distributed learning (down from 30.0%); 24.7% were studying while registered at an overseas partner organisation (up from 22.6%); and 6.9% studied at overseas campuses (down from 7.0%).

Level of study

Figure 3 shows that in 2021–22, as previous years, most ������ϲʿ������ HE��TNE students were studying for undergraduate degrees (66.8%), while 32.0% were studying postgraduate taught programmes. Students on postgraduate research programmes made up the smallest group (1.3%).����

Location of provider

Table 1 shows that most students were reported by providers located in England (85.9%). This was followed by Scotland (8.1%), Wales (5.7%) and Northern Ireland (0.3%).

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In 2021–22, ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE was delivered in 230 countries and territories around the world, with 51.1% of students studying in Asia, followed by Europe (18.5%), the Middle East (13.7%) and Africa (10.5%).��

Asia hosted 285,400 students, 51.1% of the total. Student numbers increased the most in Asia (+32,080 students), followed by the Middle East (+6,300), between 2020–21 and 2021–22. Overall, ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE student numbers increased across all world regions between 2020–21 and 2021–22 with the exception of Australasia, which saw a decrease of 145 students. Of the top 20 host countries and territories, 18 saw increases in student numbers – only Oman and Hong Kong experienced a decline.

The top type of provision varies by region: distance, flexible, or distributed learning was the prevalent mode of delivery in Australasia, North America and South America; collaborative provision was dominant in Asia and Africa; and studying with an overseas provider was most common in the Middle East.����

������ϲʿ������ HE TNE numbers by region

Figure 4 shows an increase in student numbers across all world regions except for Australasia between 2020–21 and 2021–22. Asia and Europe increased their share of the total, while Africa, Australasia, the Middle East, and North America’s share decreased. South America’s share remained the same.��

Figure 5 and Table 2��show the top 20 host countries and territories by student numbers in 2021–22, the percentage change from the previous year and the proportion of the global total in each. The largest variations took place in Vietnam (+39.7%), India (+39.5%) and Sri Lanka (+27.4%). There were small decreases in Oman (-3.7%) and Hong Kong (-1.8%). One point of significance is the increase in TNE in South Asia. Both India and Vietnam are priority countries for the ������ϲʿ������ government, and there is a strong drive for ������ϲʿ������ universities to collaborate more with these countries, and with this region as a whole. It is also worth noting that if current trends continue, Sri Lanka will soon overtake Malaysia as the second largest country for ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE students.

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Level of study across regions

Figure 6a and Figure 6b��show the top host countries and territories by level of provision in 2021–22 and the percentage of provision at each level in each country/territory. Of the top 20 hosts for undergraduate students, only in Ireland (46.5%) and India (33.5%) did undergraduate students account for less than half of the TNE student population.��Postgraduate students accounted for less than half of the TNE student population in nine��of the top 20 hosts.

Sri Lanka hosted the largest number of postgraduate students, despite postgraduate provision only accounting for 34.7% of its total TNE student population. Postgraduate students made up the largest proportion of provision in Nigeria (85.6%), Austria (83.8%) and Cyprus (83.0%). Undergraduate students made up the largest proportion of provision in Kuwait (96.0%), Uzbekistan (95.0%) and Nepal (93.1%).

TNE in Africa is currently dominated by Egypt, with collaborative provision (mainly dual degrees) being the fastest growing type of provision. However, international branch campuses (IBCs) are the��preferred type of TNE by Egyptian policymakers. The ������ϲʿ������ is also Egypt's largest TNE partner, and there is a real appetite for ������ϲʿ������ universities to increase their presence in what is currently a very supportive policy environment for TNE.��That said, there are small but significant increases in TNE student numbers from Zimbabwe, Mauritius and South Africa. Moreover, Nigeria - currently the second-largest host country for TNE in Africa - is one of the ������ϲʿ������ government's International Education Strategy (IES) priority countries for establishing long-term sustainable TNE partnerships, so there may be a bigger increase in student numbers in the future.��

As shown in Figure 7, after a drop in 2018–19, student numbers in Africa have recovered and continue to increase. Despite this, growth in the last year has been slower.

Top host countries

Table 3 shows the 10 top host countries in Africa in 2021–22. Egypt hosted the most students: 24,545 (41.8% of the total). The greatest proportional increase took place in Zimbabwe (+11.9%). Ghana (-10.2%), Zambia (-5.6%) and Mauritius (-0.9%) showed a proportional decrease from 2020–21 to 2021–22.��

Figure 8 shows the development of student numbers in the top five host countries in Africa (excluding students from Oxford Brookes University), which altogether accounted for 74.1% of all ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE students in Africa in 2021–22.

Type of provision

Figure 9 shows how many students were studying through each type of TNE provision. TNE via distance, flexible or distributed learning was represented in all 56 countries who reported TNE. The largest number of students studied via collaborative provision at 23,465.

Level of study

Figure 10a and Figure 10b show the distribution of undergraduate and postgraduate TNE study across African countries. Egypt alone accounted for 67.5% of undergraduate students in Africa. Mauritius had the second most undergraduate students but accounted for only 6.8% of the total. At postgraduate level, three countries alone accounted for 45.1% of students: Nigeria (19.9%), South Africa (15.1%) and Egypt (10.1%).

As the largest market for ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE, 2021—22 saw��significant increases in student numbers from South and Southeast Asia. While China continues to be the ������ϲʿ������’s largest TNE partner (by quite a large margin), there has been a huge increase in TNE students from Vietnam, India and Sri Lanka which cannot be ignored. The 2022 International Education Strategy has identified both Vietnam and India as strategic growth areas.����

With the demand for English-taught quality higher education increasing, it has become easier for ������ϲʿ������ and other foreign HEIs to enter the Vietnamese market. What is more, Vietnam represents a growing opportunity for ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE development, due to its increasing GDP and limited options for higher education locally.

India is the world’s second most populous country, and demand for international education has never been higher. In 2022, the ������ϲʿ������ and India signed an MoU (Memorandum of Understanding) to officially recognise each other’s higher education qualifications, and in September 2023, ������ϲʿ������ universities joined a delegation to India to establish new opportunities for TNE partnerships. Current trends suggest India will become a major ������ϲʿ������ HE��TNE partner in the near future.��

As shown in Figure 11, student numbers in Asia have continued to increase, growing by 31,000 (+12.4%) between 2020–21 and 2021–22.

Top host countries and territories

Table 4 shows the 10 Asian countries and territories hosting the most students in 2021–22. China was ranked the top host country, with 72,205 (25.3% of the total). The greatest proportional increase took place in Vietnam for the second year in a row (+39.7%), followed closely by India (+39.5%). The only place where numbers decreased was Hong Kong (-1.8%).����

Figure 12 shows the development of student numbers in the top five Asian host countries and territories, which together accounted for 77.1% of all TNE students in Asia in 2021–22.

Type of provision

Figure 13 shows the number of students studying through each type of TNE provision. Distance, flexible or distributed learning was represented in all 35 countries who reported TNE, while collaborative provision saw the highest number of students overall.

Level of study

Figure 14a and Figure 14b��show the distribution between undergraduate and postgraduate TNE study across Asian countries and territories. China, Sri Lanka and Malaysia accounted for the largest number of students at undergraduate (60.8%) and postgraduate (53.5%) level.

Across this region, ������ϲʿ������ HE��TNE numbers have been low. This presents an opportunity for the ������ϲʿ������ to utilise its close relationships, with Australia and New Zealand in particular, to boost TNE partnerships and collaboration.��

As shown in Figure 15, student numbers in Australasia have seen a small decline in 2021—22. Generally speaking, over the past five years TNE student numbers have remained low, with no major increases or decreases.

Top host countries and territories

Table 5 shows the four countries and territories in Australasia hosting the most students in 2021–22. Unsurprisingly, given its larger population, Australia was ranked first with 2,315 students (78.3% of the total). However, both the top two countries saw a decrease in TNE students compared to the previous academic year – Australia was down by 5.1% and New Zealand by 6.8%. Numbers in all other host countries and territories were below 25 students.

Figure 16 shows the trends in student numbers in the top four host countries and territories, which together accounted for 98.6% of all TNE students in Australasia last year. There were no significant changes between 2017–18 and 2021–22.

Type of provision

Figure 17 shows how many students were studying through each type of TNE provision. Distance, flexible or distributed learning continues to be the top type of provision, delivered in all 19 countries and territories where TNE students were reported in Australasia, with most of them studying in Australia.

Level of study

Figure 18a and Figure 18b show the distribution between undergraduate and postgraduate TNE study across Australasian countries and territories, predominantly Australia and New Zealand. At undergraduate level, Australia accounted for 78.8% of all students, followed by New Zealand at 16.7%. At postgraduate level, the distribution of students across Australia and New Zealand was similar.

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Europe is the second-largest region for ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE students, with the most ������ϲʿ������ HEIs. TNE student numbers continue to rise, and Greece continues to be the top host country, followed by Germany. TNE numbers continue on an upward trajectory, but it is unclear whether the ������ϲʿ������'s exit from the European Union is the cause.��

As shown in Figure 19, student numbers in Europe increased by 5,570 (+5.7%) between 2020–21 and 2021–22.

Top host countries

Table 6 shows the 10 European countries hosting the most students in 2021–22. Greece hosted the most students in Europe, with 23,735 (23.0% of the total), followed by Germany, with 13,190 (12.8% of the total). Austria had the greatest proportional increase (+14.6%) from 2020–21 to 2021–22. France and Italy were the only two countries that saw a decline in TNE student numbers.

Figure 20 shows the development of student numbers in the top five host countries, which together accounted for 61.8% of all TNE students in Europe in 2021–22.

Type of provision

Figure 21 shows how many students were studying through each type of TNE provision. Distance, flexible or distributed learning was the most popular, delivered in all 56 countries where TNE students were reported in Europe, with Germany being the top host country. Students registered at an overseas campus or studying via collaborative provision also reported high numbers of students, with 41 out of 56 countries represented.

Level of study

Figure 22a and Figure 22b��show��the distribution between undergraduate and postgraduate ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE study across European countries. Greece hosted just over a third of all undergraduate students (34.4%). At postgraduate level, Cyprus accounted for the most TNE students, at 17.3%, followed by Switzerland (12.6%), Germany (12.1%) and Greece (11.3%).

In the Middle East, there has been a steady, but significant increase in ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE student numbers in recent years. In Saudi Arabia, numbers have seen a sharp rise, while numbers in Oman have fallen and continue to decrease. A drive to provide high-quality foreign degrees in Saudi Arabia has opened significant opportunities for TNE partnerships. It is therefore likely that ������ϲʿ������ HE��TNE student numbers will grow in the coming years.��

As shown in Figure 23, student numbers in the Middle East dropped between 2017–18 and 2018–19, but then increased by 16,185 (+30.1%) between 2018–19 and 2020–21.

Top host countries

Table 7 shows the 10 Middle Eastern countries hosting the most students in 2021–22. For the second year in a row, the UAE hosted the most students, with 18,635 (24.3% of the total), followed by Saudi Arabia, with 18,210 (23.7% of the total). In Saudi Arabia, the majority of TNE students study via distance, flexible or distributed learning, even though qualifications obtained via this type of provision are not recognised in Saudi Arabia itself.��

The greatest proportional increase took place in Lebanon (+22.0%), while the only proportional decrease took place in Oman (-3.7%) for a second year in a row.

Figure 24 shows the development of student numbers in the top five host countries, which together accounted for 87.1% of all ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE students in the Middle East in 2021–22. While Oman remains among the top five host countries, between 2017–18 and 2021–22, TNE student numbers declined overall (despite a slight increase in 2019–20).

Type of provision

Figure 25 shows how many students were studying through each type of TNE provision. Distance, flexible or distributed learning was delivered in all 14 countries; the top host was the UAE. Collaborative provision was delivered in 13 out of 14 countries, with the largest number of students based in Oman. The largest number of students were registered at an overseas partner organisation (37,920).

Level of study

Figure��26a and Figure 26b show the distribution between undergraduate and postgraduate TNE study across Middle Eastern countries. At undergraduate level, Saudi Arabia accounted for 27.8% of all students and Oman for 23.4%. At postgraduate level, the UAE accounted for almost half of all students (49.8%).

In North America, the United States continues to be the top country for ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE students and is the only country from this region to be featured in the ������ϲʿ������’s top 20 host countries. However, it's also worth noting that��numbers in Trinidad & Tobago continue on an upward trajectory, taking up an increasingly large share of all ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE students in North America.��

As shown in Figure 27, student numbers in North America have steadily increased since 2018–19.

Top host countries and territories

Table 8 shows the 10 North American countries hosting the most students in 2021–22. The US was the top country, hosting 8,935 students (32.0% of the total), followed by Trinidad and Tobago, with 6,520 students (23.4% of the total). The greatest proportional increase took place in Belize (+10.9%).

Figure 28 shows the development of student numbers in the top five host countries and territories, which together accounted for 85.5% of all ������ϲʿ������ HE��TNE students in North America in 2021–22. The US continues to be the top host country. Trinidad and Tobago now ranks second (overtaking Canada), as numbers steadily increase.

Type of provision

Figure 29 shows how many students were studying through each type of TNE provision. Distance, flexible or distributed learning was reported in all 37 countries and territories, with the largest number of students in the US. Collaborative provision was most popular in Trinidad and Tobago. Students studying at an overseas campus were reported only in the US.

Level of study

Figure 30a and Figure 30b��show��the distribution between undergraduate and postgraduate TNE study across North America. At undergraduate level, Trinidad and Tobago accounted for 30.3% and the US for 28.2% of all students. At postgraduate level, the US also accounted for the most students (34.3%), followed by Canada (24.5%).

South America is one of the smallest markets for ������ϲʿ������ HE��TNE. Nevertheless, ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE��numbers continue to grow, albeit slowly. It is worth noting that numbers in Guyana specifically have tripled in the last five years, from 355 to 1,005.��

As shown in Figure 31, student numbers in South America increased by just 95 (+3.1%) between 2020–21 and 2021–22.

Top host countries

Table 9 shows the 10 South American countries hosting the most students in 2021–22. Guyana hosted the most students, with 1,005 (31.8% of the total), followed by Brazil, with 750 (23.7% of the total). The greatest proportional increase took place in Chile (+12.5%), while Argentina was the only country to see a decrease (-3.4%). Numbers in Ecuador and Suriname remained unchanged.

Figure 32 shows the development of student numbers in the top five host countries, which together accounted for 83.2% of all ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE students in South America in 2021–22. Between 2017–18 and 2021–22, student numbers in all five countries increased.����

Type of provision

Figure 33 shows how many students were studying through each type of TNE provision. Distance, flexible or distributed learning was delivered in all 13 countries in South America where TNE students were reported, with Brazil hosting the most students.

Level of study

Figure 34a and Figure 34b show the distribution between undergraduate and postgraduate TNE study across South American countries. At undergraduate level, Brazil, Guyana and Peru accounted for 71.5% of all students. At postgraduate level, Guyana accounted for over a third (38.5%) of all students.

Higher education TNE is the delivery of degrees in a country or territory other than that where the awarding provider is based. It can include, but is not limited to, overseas campuses, distance learning, online provision, joint and dual degree programmes, double awards, fly-in faculty, and mixed models traditionally referred to as blended learning.����

For the purposes of this report, ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE students are learners enrolled in a higher education degree programme which leads to a ������ϲʿ������ qualification but is based in a country or territory outside of the ������ϲʿ������. This includes all students active at any point in the reporting period, including students who became dormant part way through the year and those withdrawing from courses. In this report, we use the word ‘students’ to represent these ������ϲʿ������ HE TNE learners, unless otherwise stated.��

Data about TNE is collected annually by the Higher Education Statistics Agency via the Aggregate Offshore Record. AOR data has been collected since 2007–08 from ������ϲʿ������ higher education providers who subscribe to HESA. Universities provide data in their AOR return about ‘students that are studying wholly outside the ������ϲʿ������ who are either registered with the reporting provider or who are studying for an award of the reporting provider’.��

Following HESA’s definitions, this report uses the term ‘higher education providers’ to refer to the ������ϲʿ������ universities and institutions covered by the AOR. HESA collects data which relates to five categories or types of TNE provision and providers are responsible for returning data against these. The categories are broad, and universities may not always categorise their programmes by the same definitions used by HESA. The list below shows these categories, how they are referred to in this report, and an example for each. These examples are not exhaustive, and there are many other ways that TNE programmes operate which may be included in each category, but not included in the table.��

In accordance with HESA’s Standard Rounding Methodology:

• Data has been rounded to the nearest 5��

• Any number lower than 2.5 has been rounded to 0��

• Percentages have been supressed where totals are less than 25��

In 2019–20, Oxford Brookes University changed its reporting practice to reflect the point at which students engage directly with their component of the BSc (Hons) Degree in Applied Accounting, taught in partnership with the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA). The longitudinal analysis in this report excludes Oxford Brookes University where appropriate, to reflect sector-wide trends more accurately over time.��

Neither the Higher Education Statistics Agency Limited nor HESA Services Limited can accept responsibility for any inferences or conclusions derived by third parties from data or other information supplied by HESA Services.��